Journal of Nanoscience and Nanomaterials 3108-2084 JNNC Confmeets Publishing, an imprint of Conve International Pvt Ltd Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India Review Article 10.67238/jnnc.2026.v2.02 JNNC-26-7438 Carbon Nanodots – The Newest Allotropic form of Carbon Nanomaterials 19 02 2026 2 1 16 22 13 01 2026 05 02 2026 19 02 2026 This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Department of Ear, Nose and Throat, Saveetha Medical College (SMC) and Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMTS), Deemed to be University, Chennai 602 105, India Department of Chemical Sciences, School of Science, Gujarat State Fertilizers and Chemicals University, Vadodara 391750, India Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel Pulidindi Indra Neel Deokar Archana Gedanken Aharon

Carbon materials are versatile. With the advent of analytical tools that can probe the nanoworld, new allotropic forms with unusual properties are being discovered. While fullerene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene are nanoallotropic forms of carbon with hydrophobic nature as with any other known carbon materials, the newly found allotrope of carbon nanostructure, namely, Carbon Nano Dots (CNDs) are hydrophilic. Meaning their applications in real world and biological world are uncomprehendable. Recently, enormous funding is devoted to research into these carbon nanodots and their applications. This has motivated the researchers worldwide to conduct research at a rapid pace on this astounding material, namely, carbon nanodots as well as their off-springs, their synthesis, unusual properties and unconventional applications in the realms of catalysis, energy, environment, agriculture, biomedicine, diagnosis and therapy.

 Carbon Nanodots CNDs Heteroatom Doped Carbon Nanodots B N S P – CNDs Intermediate Crystalline Phase INTRODUCTION

A Web of Science search with the keywords, namely, carbon nanodots, yield 7424 results and the number shrinks by an order of magnitude to 482 when the keywords namely carbon nanodots and catalyst were used together as on 5th February 2026. This shows that the research area on the catalytic applications of carbon nanodots is at its infancy and that this novel material is underutilized. The intensity of the R & D activity in the field of carbon nanodots as evident from the number of publications as a function of time during the past decade (2016-2025) is pictorially represented in a bar diagram as shown in Figure 1. On an average, 636 papers were produced each year on Carbon nanodots.

Recent advances in the R & D activity in the research hotspot “Carbon Nano-dots”.

 MATERIALS & METHODS Unique features of the newest allotrope of carbon materials

Carbon nanodots (CNDs) are a new class of carbon nanomaterials with astounding properties and applications [1-5]. The properties and applications of carbon nanodots (CNDs) were depicted in Figure 2a [6]. Likewise, the mechanism of carbonization of glucose (representative feedstock for carbon nanodots) into CNDs in activating fields like hydrothermal or microwave is represented in Figure 2b [7].

(a): Unique properties and applications of carbon nanodots; Adapted with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry 6.

2 (b): Microwave assisted hydrothermal synthesis depicting the carbonization of glucose to graphitic quantum dots (GQDs); Adapted with permission from the American Chemical Society [7].

Usually the CNDs are extensively surface functionalized with oxygen functional groups like carbonyl, carboxyl, hydroxyl and several others. Reduced CNDs can be derived from CNDs with the use of reducing agents like borohydrides and such reduction of oxygen functionalities, rather optimization of oxygen surface functionalities, is known to increase the quantum yield of CNDs at least by an order of magnitude [8]. Thanks to the innovation in the characterization of nanomaterials with high resolution, the observation of these new materials, which have gone unnoticed thus far, has become a reality. Carbon dots, as the name implies, represent carbon nanomaterials of particle size less than 10 nm and with near-spherical shape. They have unusual properties, such as solubility in water, photostability, biocompatibility, environmental friendliness, sustainability of feedstock, fluorescence, photoluminescence, electrochemiluminescence, and many more. They are highly susceptible to functionalization and hybridization, resulting in multifunctionality [9]. These materials, namely functionalized CDs, can sense a variety of chemical and biological species, as evident from the list that follows: H2O2 [10], Sn (IV) [11], gas phase water [12], tetracycline homologs [13], nitrobenzene [14], Fe2+ and Hg2+ [15], Cu2+ and Fe3+ [16], intracellular iron, Fe2+/Fe3+ [17], Hg2+ [18], imidacloprid [19], dimethyl methyl phosphonate [20] and others (caffeine, dichromate, 4-nitrophenol, oxalate, Pb2+, hydrogen, Cr (VI), nitrite, sulfate, sulfadiazine, Cr3+).. There is no relevance in the order shown above; they were copy and pasted as they appear in the Web of Science in the interest of time. The variety and diversity of the sensing ability of these functionalized carbon materials is, thus evident.

 Recent advances in the synthesis, properties and applications of carbon nanodots (CNDs) in a nutshell

Noteworthy developments in the field of CNDs pertaining to their synthesis, properties and applications were shown in Table 1.

Feedstock Synthesis Properties Applications Reference
Citric acid Hydrothermal NIR - absorption Nanoheaters; biomedical 21
Leaves of Solanum nigrum L, Hydrothermal long-lasting luminescence precision tumor resection; substitute to rare earths 22
Arginine Microwave Nitrogen doped CNDs with 13C enrichment; narrow particle size distribution optoelectronics, biomedicine, and bioimaging 23
Citric acid formamide Microwave mediated heating Excitation-dependent fluorescence emission multicolor bio-labeling reagent (full colour emission CDs) 24
Citric acid Hydrothermal Near infra-red (NIR) chemiluminescence (CL) Bioimaging of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 25
Citric acid and L-glutathione Microwave Photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) of 46.9 % in S and N co-doped CNDs Sensing tetracycline hydrochloride (Tc) in milk 26
Metronidazole Hydrothermal Presence of NO2 surface functional groups on CNDs key to DNA damage of obligate anaerobes Antibacterial activity against Porphyromonas gingivalis 27
1,3-Dihydroxynaphthalene Hydrothermal Red emissive quantum yield – 53 % warm white light-emitting diode 28
Citric acid Hydrothermal Nitrogen doped CNDs with excitation dependent emission; molecular fluorescence Biological and optoelectronic application 29
Sodium citrate and sodium thiosulfate Hydrothermal S doped CNDs with PLQY – 67 % Fe3+ detection; detection limit: 0.1 mM 30

Table 1: Advances in the synthesis, properties and applications of carbon nanodots (2005-2021).

 Landmark papers on Carbon nanodots

So as to contribute to the advancement of the research hotspot, namely, Carbon nanodots, a special issue on “Catalytic methods for the synthesis of carbon nanodots and their applications” is launched by the authors of this review article on 29th August 2022. Within a duration of 20 months, i.e., by 30th September 2023, 12 landmark papers were published in the special issue. Ten research groups, namely, Syed Hadi Hasan and coworkers, Joydeep Das, Manish Srivastava and Nirmala Kumari Jangid and coworkers, Lerato L Mokoloko, Neil J Coville and coworkers, Jae Hong Kim and coworkers, Ahmad Umar and coworkers, Selvaraj Mohana Roopan and coworkers, Raji Atchudan, Yong Rok Lee and co-workers, Siti Kartoon Kamarudin and co-workers, Gabriela Rodriguez-Carballo and Ramon Moreno-Tost, from 10 nations across the globe, namely, India, South Africa, Republic of Korea, Japan, Saudi Arabia, USA, UAE, Greece, Malaysia and Spain have contributed to the 12 papers that constituted the special issue. The highlights of their work is summarized in Table 2.

S No Highlights Reference
1 The review article of Hasan’s group provides new insight into the rapidly expanding research area, namely, “carbon dots: synthesis, properties, characterization and applications”.  31
 2 The key aspects of the review by Joydeep Das and coworkers is the application of carbon nano dots for electrochemical sensing and cancer therapy. Detailed account of the cytotoxicity of carbon nano dots is provided. It is encouraging to learn that carbon nano dots exhibit only low to negligible cytotoxicity and are indeed biocompatible. This gives hope to the scientific community to work on a war-footing to exploit these materials for therapeutic applications. The review article contained 3 figures, 10 tables and 75 references 32
3 The unique properties of CNDs namely hydrophilicity, extensive surface functionalization, photoluminescence, fluorescence, biocompatibility, photostability, feedstock diversity, sustainability and the resulting advantages of these materials over the traditional semiconductors for application in biosensing, bioimaging, diagnosis, targeted drug delivery and therapy were highlighted. The need for improvement in the synthetic strategies as well as utility is emphasized. 33
4 The application of these exotic hydrophilic carbon nanomateirals, of size less than 10 nm, based on their fluorescent property were highlighted. Moreover, the application of CNDs for classical applications like catalysts and catalyst support and the related challenges like the thermal stability, aggregation, separation and reuse were discussed. Poor thermal stability (< 250°C) limit their application at high temperatures. Thus both the advantages and disadvantages of these novel materials were discussed. 34
5 The paper of Chau Thi Thanh Thuy et al., deals with the synthesis of heteroatom (N) doped carbon dots from L-histidine and their subsequent deposition on TiO2 (rutile) films. The produced material is thoroughly characterized and used as photoanode for the photo electrochemical water splitting reaction. A current density value of 2.51 mAcm-2 is reported with the optimized catalyst.  35
6 Yadav and Umar’s paper deals with the development of N doped carbon quantum dot - eriochrome cyanine composite photocatalyst for the conversion of amine and for the regeneration of NADH. 36
7 Photocatalytic activity of carbon nanodots/g-C3N4 nanocomposite for the O-Arylation of 2-chloroquinoline-3-carbaldehydes is demonstrated. Carbon nanodot-graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) composite was synthesized using microwave irradiation. Product yield in the range of 65-90% within 12-24 h was reported. Moreover, the reusability of the catalyst for five reaction runs without loss in activity was shown. The C-O bond formation was found to be facilitated by the generation of phenoxy and quinolone-3-carboldehyde radicals upon irradiation with the blue LED. The study opened a new avenue with the development of organic photocatalyst as an alternative to the conventional metal based catalysts. 37
8 The work of Atchudan, Edison and co-workers deals with the hydrothermal synthesis of functionalized carbon nanodots from the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) skin and exploiting them for the bioimaging of human colon cancer cells (HCT-116).  38
9 The work of Yadav and Umar and coworkers deals with the design of Eriochrome cyanine R (EC-R) based activated carbon cloth (ACC) photocatalyst (EC-R@ACC) for the regeneration of NADH as well as for the photocatalytic reduction of 4-nitro benzyl alcohol.  39
10 The work of Siti Kartom Kamarudin and coworkers deals with the development of graphene aerogel supported PtRu (20 wt.%) anode electrocatalyst for methanol oxidation for direct methanol fuel cell application. As expected, a three-fold enhancement in activity compared to commercial PtRu/C (20 wt.% loading) is obtained. The reasons for such enhancement and the advantage of the electrocatalyst designed were rightly and clearly highlighted. 40
11 The work of Siti Kartom Kamarudin et al., deals with the design of methanol electrooxidation catalyst, namely, PtRu (20 wt.%) supported on TiO2-Graphene aerogel composite. A nearly 7.1 times higher activity is observed with the catalyst developed compared to the commercial PtRu (20 wt.%)/C electrocatalyst. Response surface methodology studies were carried out to gain insights into the reaction.  41
12 The essential and unique features of CNDs, namely, water stability, water solubility and the low cytotoxicity were highlighted. The CNDs produced using Xylose as the feedstock and VOPO4 as the catalyst under hydrothermal reaction were rich in surface oxygen functionality and exhibited excellent photoluminescence. More over the photo-electronic and photocatalytic activity of the carbon dots were also demonstrated. 42

Table 2: Highlights of the 12 published papers in the land mark special issue on “Catalytic methods for the synthesis of carbon nanodots and their applications”.

Owing to the increasing domain of usefulness of carbon nanodots and its off springs (doped analogues and variants) [43-45] rapid innovation is happening in this field with increasing number of patents being filed (Indra Neel Pulidindi, Haritha SR, Deepak Nallaswamy Veeraiyan, Ultra-small, highly fluorescent, nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon nanodots (N, B-CNDs) for catalytic application. Indian patent, File number, 202641011120 (Ultra-Small), filed on 03/02/2026) and Indra Neel Pulidindi, Haritha SR, Deepak Nallaswamy Veeraiyan, Nitrogen enriched highly fluorescent carbon nanodots (N-CNDs) as sensor in biorefinery. Indian patent, File number, 202641011119 (Nitrogen) filed on 02/03/2026. Indeed there is plenty of room at the bottom. For the most recent advances the readers are advised to consult the following papers [46-58].

 CONCLUSION

The novel hydrophilic and highly polar nano allotropes of carbon material, namely, carbon nanodots have immense technological applications which are underutilized, especially, in the realms of catalysis, energy, environment, medicine, opto-electronics and material's science. To promote the advancement of research and development activity in “Carbon nanodots-Synthesis, characterization, properties and applications” a second edition of the special issue entitled “Catalytic methods for the synthesis of carbon dots and their applications” in the journal Catalysts, MDPI, is launched and the research fraternity is requested to richly contribute to the success of this issue too as in the past. One of the latest research trends in the field is to explore exotic feedstock like the cotton, cellulose, carboxy methyl cellulose, glucose, orange peel extract, banana peel extract and lignin for the production of ultrasmall highly fluorescent carbon nanodots and its doped analogues (B, N, S, P doped CNDs) for application in medicine, energy, environment and agriculture.

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Indebtedness is due to Dr. Deepak Nallaswamy Veeraiyan for generously providing opportunity to INP to conduct state of the art research at the SMCH and SIMATS. Thankfulness is due to Dr Anandamurugan, librarian and the staff of the central library, IIT Madras for providing access to the knowledge resources that enabled the successful compilation of this editorial. Special thanks are due to Mrs Saradhambal V, Superintendent, Central library, IIT Madras for exposing INP and keeping him abreat with the current news by providing uncensored access to Nalanda Light Reading Hall. Gratefulness is due to the Syed Hadi Hasan and coworkers, Joydeep Das, Manish Srivastava and Nirmala Kumari Jangid and coworkers, Lerato L Mokoloko, Neil J Coville and coworkers, Jae Hong Kim and coworkers, Ahmad Umar and coworkers, Selvaraj Mohana Roopan and coworkers, Raji Atchudan, Yong Rok Lee and co-workers, Siti Kartoon Kamarudin and co-workers, Gabriela Rodriguez-Carballo and Ramon Moreno-Tost for contributing 12 landmark papers to the special issue. The reprint of this special issue is dedicated to the LORD and Saviour Jesus Christ. Blessings and thankfulness are due to Miss Tabitha Victor Pulidindi the only daughter of INP for her prayers of faith and selfless love. Gratefulness is due to the House of prayer Church, Adyar for the fellowship and the Holy Communion.

 CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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